Cuban Health Care . Introduction. Healthcare Is The “Efforts

Cuban Health Care Introduction Healthcare is the â€Å"efforts made to maintain or restore physical, mental, or emotional well-being especially by trained and licensed professionals† (Merriam Webster). Healthcare in Cuba is regarded as a human right, therefore making â€Å"healthcare a national priority† (Iatridus, Demetri, 1988) and free for all its citizens. Cuban healthcare policies state that the attention is greatly focused on â€Å"prevention, primary care, services in the community, and the active participation of citizens† (Iatridus, Demetri 1990). The Development of Cuban Healthcare Under the oppression of Batista’s dictatorship, Cuba’s healthcare was close to non-existent. The upper-class went to clinics that were privately funded and the†¦show more content†¦The government has looked at the individual needs of its citizens and has provided free healthcare for everyone. Not only free healthcare but anything that would affect the factors of health, such as mental health and education. Research (ndjff) shows that before the new healthcare policies took place, Cuba spent 112 US dollars on per person in terms of healthcare services and now recently in 2014, statistics show that 817 US dollars are being used per person. Cuba’s healthcare is very accessible to all of the citizens. â€Å"Family physician and nurse teams were assigned to live in the neighborhoods where they practiced, literally next door to their patients. Originally, each team was responsible for improving and maintaining the health status of 600 to 800 people (120–150 families) in their catchment area, generally holding office hours in the morning and reserving the afternoon for house calls† (NIH GOV). This idea allowed Cubans have complete access to healthcare and more thorough check-up from the physicians. Thanks to the free education, students who wish to become doctors are given free education and are able to also attend medical school for free. Medical students are required to help with the country and provide their free service to all individuals around Cuba. However, there are still many negative critiques for Cuba’s healthcare, some of them being not having the proper medical equipment for surgeries and other emergencies,Show MoreRelatedFidel Castro And The Cuban Revolution1367 Words   |  6 Pageswas the fruition of the Cuban Revolution, and the dramatic shift in power was about to radically alter the country’s political, social and economic course forever. The positive and negative effects of the revolution on the Cuban people, however, as well as the condition of Cuba’s economy pre and post-revolution, is subject to heated debate. Castro’s i ron-fisted regime was the introduction of communism into the western hemisphere, and now, over fifty years later, the Cuban Revolution continues toRead MoreMental Health Among Latino Communities Essay1172 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction to Mental Health Among Latino Communities In the United States, the Latino American population has risen by over 40% within the past decade and accounts for over 17.1% of the Nations society. In 2050, the Latino Community is expected to make up nearly one-fourth of the population and 2/3 of the U.S. Hispanics are from the Mexican-American Subgroup. 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Yet it is also immature to stateRead Moreunit 73688 Words   |  15 PagesResearch Plans Patricia Bolivar Walden University Research Theory, Design, and Methods RSCH- 8100H-6 Dr. Rodney Bowden November 18, 2012 1 THREE ABBREVIATED RESEARCH PLANS 2 Three Abbreviated Research Plans Introduction This paper illustrates how a public health practitioner when presented with a problem, issue, or situation in the community can use a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approach strategy of inquiry to investigate not only possible solutions, but to exploreRead MoreHealth Care Analysis8147 Words   |  33 PagesComparison of the health care systems in Canada and the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Health spending per capita, in U.S. dollars PPP-adjusted, with the U.S. and Canada compared amongst other first world nations. 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Kumar, University of Connecticut Introduction A company advertised eyeglasses in Thailand by featuring a variety of cute animals wearing glasses. The advertisement was a poor choice since animals are considered to be a form of low life and no self respecting Thai would wear anything worn by animals (Payne, website). Could the company have known about this before the product launch in Thailand? Why did the company fail in spite of coming up withRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesManagement—Problems, exercises, etc. Kim S. II. Title. HD30.4.W46 2011 658.40071 173—dc22 I. 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Karl Marx And The Emergence Of Modern Capitalism - 1902 Words

Capitalism, in the past few centuries, has rose to become the dominant form of economy around the world. After the displacement of feudalism, modern capitalism arose and continues to engulf more and more of the economic sector today. How did this emergence and rise of modern capitalism occur? Two of the most influential sociologist, Karl Marx and Max Weber have both developed theories on the emergence and rise of capitalism. Additionally, they both included many criticisms of capitalism in their theories and literature. While the theories on the emergence of modern capitalism and criticisms of capitalism by Marx and Weber have many similarities, they also have many contrasting factors. Even though these theories have the differences it may also be possible to use both theories in conjunction to describe the emergence of capitalism more completely. Karl Marx was considered to be a materialist and therefore, he used his idea of historical materialism to explain his theory on the emerge nce of modern capitalism. Marx saw history as a function of material conditions and thought it was not ideas that change history, but the relations of materials shared between people. Focusing primarily on economic conditions, Marx focuses his theory on the changing property and means of production, as well as the relations of production. According to Marx’s theory when the means of production no longer match with the relations of production, class conflict arises resulting in revolution andShow MoreRelatedMax Weber And Karl Marx On Modern Capitalism1510 Words   |  7 Pages Max Weber and Karl Marx on Modern Capitalism Anna Thor Sociology 475: Classical Sociological Theory Capitalism has continued to affect the way our society works as it is vital to our society. Two sociologists named Karl Marx and Max Weber have explained what they saw the historical emergence of modern capitalism. Both Karl Marx and Max Weber saw the significance of evolution of modern capitalism in the United States. Although both of the sociologists have differing views on how theyRead MoreKarl Marx And Max Weber1324 Words   |  6 PagesKarl Marx and Max Weber were influential sociologists that paved the way for modern sociological school of thought. Both, Karl Marx and Max Weber contributed a lot to the study and foundation of sociology. Without their contributions sociology would not be as prominent as it is today. From the contribution of how sociology should be studied, to how they applied their theories to everyday life has influenced many sociologists. Predominantly, both of these theorists’ discussed the effects of capitalismRead MoreThe Impacts of the Emergence of Sociology on the Works of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber1057 Words   |  4 PagesThe emergence of sociology as a discipline is a result of the social, economic, political and technological developments in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In this essay, the adequacy of this viewpoint will be analysed by pointing out these developments and highlighting their impact on the works of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. The three are considered because they are regarded as the pioneers of sociology. Furthermore, the relevance of the early work of the above to modern sociologyRead MoreEssay on Capitalism: Karl Marx vs Adam Smith1048 Words   |  5 PagesMarx v. Smith on Capitalism Capitalism, according to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, is â€Å"the means in which production are privately owned and production is guided and income is disputed largely through the operation of markets†. Capitalism saw the emergence after the feudal system of Western Europe can do a halt. Many economists, even today, dispute the simple beginnings of capitalism. Some theories range from religious reasons, such as the rise of Protestant Reformation in the 1500s, to the enclosureRead MoreConflict Theory, Karl Marx, and the Communist Manifesto Essay1321 Words   |  6 PagesConflict Theory, Karl Marx, and The Communist Manifesto In order to understand Marx a few terms need to be defined. The first is Bourgeoisie; these are the Capitalists and they are the employers of wage laborers, and the owners of the means of production. The means of production includes the physical instruments of production such as the machines, and tools, as well as the methods of working (skills, division of labor). The Proletariat is the class of wage-laborers, they do not have their ownRead MoreThe Influence of the Communist Manifesto on the Development of Industrial Capitalism1249 Words   |  5 Pageshowever, industrial capitalism was on the brink of ruin. â€Å"On many occasions during the past century, Marxists have thought that capitalism was down for the count . . . Yet it has always come back with renewed strength.† Industrial capitalism succeeded in the face of communism, despite numerous economic disasters. As the capitalist economists hopefully noted at the time, these economic earthquakes, temporary in cha racter, soon cured themselves and left capitalism unscathed. Karl Marx sought to createRead MoreHow Karl Marx Accounts for the Industrialization of Society Essay1304 Words   |  6 PagesHow Karl Marx Accounts for the Industrialization of Society Sociology has been classified as the last in a long line of emerging scientific disciplines which people have developed and explored in order to make sense of their world. Early theories such as the positivist approach of Comte, the functionalist views and the conflict perspectives of Karl Marx have offered a view of why human beings behave as they do and how they fit together in society. In the eighteenthRead MoreIndustrialization Of The Industrial Revolution1214 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"The 18th century saw the emergence of the ‘Industrial Revolution’, the great age of steam, canals and factories that changed the face of the British economy forever.† (White, M, The Industrial Revolution). 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Abap Data Dictionary Free Essays

string(45) " to a definition of the particular database\." The ABAP Dictionary centrally describes and manages all the data definitions used in the system. The ABAP Dictionary is completely integrated in the ABAP Development Workbench. All the other components of the Workbench can actively access the definitions stored in the ABAP Dictionary. We will write a custom essay sample on Abap Data Dictionary or any similar topic only for you Order Now The ABAP Dictionary supports the definition of user-defined types (data elements, structures and table types). You can also define the structure of database objects (tables, indexes and views) in the ABAP Dictionary. These objects can then be automatically created in the database with this definition. The ABAP Dictionary also provides tools for editing screen fields, for example for assigning a field an input help (F4 help). Type definitions Structure Database objects Table DB table Data element Table type Tools Poss. values Screen F4 The most important object types in the ABAP Dictionary are tables, views, types (data elements, structures, table types), domains, search helps and lock objects. April 2001 9 BC – ABAP Dictionary ABAP Dictionary SAP AG ABAP Dictionary Purpose Data definitions (metadata) are created and managed in the ABAP Dictionary. The ABAP Dictionary permits a central description of all the data used in the system without redundancies. New or modified information is automatically provided for all the system components. This ensures data integrity, data consistency and data security. You can create the corresponding objects (tables or views) in the underlying relational database using these data definitions. The ABAP Dictionary therefore describes the logical structure of the objects used in application development and shows how they are mapped to the underlying relational database in tables or views. The ABAP Dictionary also provides standard functions for editing fields on the screen, for example for assigning a screen field an input help. What Information is Stored in the ABAP Dictionary? The most important object types in the ABAP Dictionary are tables, views, types, domains, search helps and lock objects. Tables [Page 13] are defined in the ABAP Dictionary independently of the database. A table having the same structure is then created from this table definition in the underlying database. Views [Page 97] are logical views on more than one table. The structure of the view is defined in the ABAP Dictionary. A view on the database can then be created from this structure. Types [Page 136] are used in ABAP program. The structure of a type can be defined globally in ABAP programs. Changes to a type automatically take effect in all the programs using the type. Lock objects [Page 209] are used to synchronize access to the same data by more than one user. Function modules that can be used in application programs are generated from the definition of a lock object in the ABAP Dictionary. Different fields having the same technical type can be combined in domains [Page 161]. A domain defines the value range of all table fields and structure components that refer to this domain. The ABAP Dictionary also contains the information displayed with the F1 and F4 help for a field in an input template. The documentation about the field is created for a data element [Page 138] that describes the meaning of the contents of a table field. The list of possible input values that appears for the input help is created by a foreign key [Page 19] or a search help [Page 172]. Integration in the ABAP Development Workbench The ABAP Dictionary is completely integrated in the ABAP Development Workbench. The R/3 System works interpretatively, permitting the ABAP Dictionary to be actively integrated in the development environment. Instead of the original objects, the interpreters see only internal representations of these objects. These internal representations are adjusted automatically when the system finds that changes have been made in the ABAP Dictionary. This ensures that the screen and ABAP interpreters, input help, database interface, and development tools always access current data. 10 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary ABAP Dictionary The following ABAP program lists the airline carriers (see Flight model [Page 302]) and carrier IDs contained in table SCARR. DATA: SCARR_TAB TYPE SCARR. SELECT * INTO SCARR_TAB FROM SCARR. WRITE: / SCARR_TAB-CARRID, SCARR_TAB-CARRNAME. ENDSELECT. Only structure SCARR_TAB is declared in the program. All the information about this structure, such as the field names, data types and field lengths, are copied from table SCARR, which is defined in the ABAP Dictionary. This information about table SCARR is called from the ABAP Dictionary when the program is generated. This means that the source text of the program need not be adjusted when a change is made to table SCARR, for example when the length of a table field is changed. The next time the program is called, the system automatically determines that the structure of table SCARR has changed. The program is simply regenerated, thereby retrieving up-to-date information about table SCARR from the ABAP Dictionary. ?Development environment ? Development environment ABAP Tools Data Modeler Screen Painter ABAP Dictionary ABAP Interpreter Dialog Control Interfaces Screen Interpreter Runtime environment of the application Runtime environment of the application When you work on development projects, objects of the ABAP Dictionary can be changed any number of times before being activated [Page 237] and made available to the operative components of the system. Objects can have both an active and an inactive version in the ABAP Dictionary at the same time. Inactive ABAP Dictionary objects have no effect on the runtime system (ABAP processor, database interface). This permits greater changes to several objects without impairing the April 2001 11 BC – ABAP Dictionary ABAP Dictionary SAP AG executability of the system. The objects can only be activated together when they have all been changed. 12 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Tables Tables Tables can be defined independently of the database in the ABAP Dictionary. The fields of the table are defined with their (database-independent) data types and lengths. When the table is activated, a physical table definition is created in the database for the table definition stored in the ABAP Dictionary. The table definition is translated from the ABAP Dictionary to a definition of the particular database. You read "Abap Data Dictionary" in category "Papers" Database-independent Definition of the Tables in the ABAP Dictionary T1 T2 T3 †¦ Tn Activation program and DB UTILITY DB Definition of the tables in the database T1 T2 T3 Tn A table definition in the ABAP Dictionary contains the following components:  ·  ·  ·  · Table fields [Page 14] define the field names and data types of the fields contained in the table Foreign keys [Page 19] define the relationships between the table and other tables. Technical settings [Page 30] control how the table should be created in the database. Indexes [Page 61]: To speed up data selection, secondary indexes can be created for the table The customer can modify SAP tables with append structures [Page 69] and customizing includes [Page 68]. This kind of modification ensures that the customer enhancements are automatically merged with the new versions of the SAP tables when there is a release upgrade. See also: Creating Tables [Page 72] Making Changes to Tables [Page 83] April 2001 13 BC – ABAP Dictionary Table Fields SAP AG Table Fields You must define the following for a table field in the ABAP Dictionary:  ·  ·  ·  ·  ·  · Field name: The field name can have a maximum of 16 places and may contain letters, digits and underscores. The field name must begin with a letter. Key flag: determines whether the field should belong to the table key. Field type: data type of the field in the ABAP Dictionary. Field length: number of valid places in the field. Decimal places: number of places after the decimal point, specifying numeric data types. Short text: short text describing the meaning of the field. You can also include [Page 16] the fields of a structure in the table. Assignment of the Data Type, Field Length and Short Text You can assign the data type [Page 242], length and short text in different ays:  ·  · You directly assign the field a data type, field length (and if necessary decimal places) and short text in the table definition. You can assign the field a data element [Page 138]. The data type, field length (and decimal places) are determined from the domain of the data element. The short description of the data element is assigned to the field as a short text. Other Assignment Options  ·  ·  · C heck table: An input check for the field can be defined with a foreign key [Page 19]. This input check appears on all the screens in which the field is used. Search help assignment: A search help [Page 172] can be assigned to a field. This search help defines the input help flow on all the screens in which the field is used. Reference field and reference table [Page 15]: You must specify the table field in which the corresponding unit of measure or currency can be found for fields containing quantities (data type QUAN) or currency amounts (data type CURR). See also: Creating Tables [Page 72] 14 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Reference Fields and Reference Tables Reference Fields and Reference Tables You must specify a reference table for fields containing quantities (data type QUAN) or currency amounts (data type CURR). This reference table must contain a field with the format for the currency key (data type CUKY) or unit of measure (data type UNIT). This field is called the reference field of the output field. The reference field can also reside in the table itself. A field is only assigned to the reference field at program runtime. For example, if a field is filled with currency amounts, the corresponding currency is determined from the assigned reference field, that is the value entered in this field at the moment defines the currency. Table Field 1 T1 Field 3 Field 2 (CURR) Reference table Field 4 Field 5 (CUKY) T2 Field 7 Field 6 Reference field Runtime T1-Field 2 1,500. 00 T2-Field 5 DEM Table SBOOK in the flight model [Page 302] contains all the flight bookings made by customers. Field FORCURAM contains the price of the booking in the customer’s currency. Field FORCURKEY of table SBOOK contains the corresponding currency key for this price. SBOOK is therefore the reference table for field FORCURAM and FORCURKEY is the reference field for field FORCURAM. April 2001 15 BC – ABAP Dictionary Reference Fields and Reference Tables SAP AG Includes In addition to listing the individual fields, you can also include the fields of another structure in tables [Page 13] and structures [Page 144]. Individual fields and includes can be mixed as required. Structure includes Table F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F3 F4 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Database When an include is changed, all the tables and structures that include it are automatically adjusted. Structure A was included in table B. A new field is inserted in structure A. When structure A is activated, table B is adjusted to this change, that is the new field is also inserted there. You can assign the include a group name [Page 148] with which the group of fields in the include can be addressed as a whole in ABAP programs. Includes can also be nested, that is structure A includes structure B which in turn includes another structure C, etc. The maximum nesting depth is limited to nine. The maximum length of a path of nested includes in a table or structure is therefore nine (the table/structure itself not included). 16 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Reference Fields and Reference Tables Table/structure U1 Include U1 U2 Include U2 U3 Maximum depth = 9 Include U8 U9 Include U9 Only flat structures [Page 144] can be included. In a flat structure, every field either refers to a data element or is directly assigned a data type, length and possibly decimal places. Only structures may be included in a table. Tables, structures and views may be included in a structure. The length of the field names is more restricted in tables than in structures. In a table, a field name may not have more than 16 places, but in a structure up to 30 places are allowed for the field name. A structure therefore can only be included in a table if none of the field names of the structure are longer than 16 places. The path of nested includes may only contain one table. Table TAB1 includes structure STRUCT1, which in turn includes structure STRUCT2. The path of the nested includes here only contains table TAB1. It is also possible to include TAB1 in a further structure STRUCT0, but no other table TAB2 may be included in TAB1 since in this case a path of nested includes would contain two tables (TAB1 and TAB2). See also: Inserting an Include [Page 85] April 2001 17 BC – ABAP Dictionary Named Includes SAP AG Named Includes If an include [Page 16] is used to define a database table or structure, a name can be assigned to the included substructure. The group of fields in the include can be addressed as a whole in ABAP programs with this name. In ABAP programs, you can either access the fields directly with – or analogously with –. You can access the fields of the group as a whole with -. Structure PERSON includes structure ADDRESS with the name ADR. ADDRESS has a field CITY. With PERSON-ADR you can address all the fields in structure ADDRESS. The included field CITY can also be addressed with PERSON-CITY or PERSON-ADR-CITY. You can include a structure more than once (e. g. in a period group). Since direct access by field name should be permitted here, the included field names must be renamed to ensure that they are unique. A suffix can be assigned to each group, extending the names of the group fields. The fields can then be addressed in ABAP programs with – or –. Structure PERSON includes structure ADDRESS twice. An address is the private address with suffix H and name ADRH. The other address is the business address with suffix W and name ADRW. You can access field CITY in the private address with PERSON-CITYH or PERSON-ADRH-CITY. The functionality of the named includes in the ABAP Dictionary corresponds to the ABAP construction INCLUDE TYPE †¦ AS †¦ RENAMING †¦ . 18 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Foreign Keys Foreign Keys You can define the relationships between tables in the ABAP Dictionary by creating foreign keys. Using foreign keys, you can easily create value checks for input fields. Foreign keys can also be used to link several tables in a view [Page 97] or a lock object [Page 209]. Field Assignment in the Foreign Key A foreign key links two tables T1 and T2 by assigning fields of table T1 to the primary key fields of table T2. Foreign key fields Foreign key table T1 Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Primary key Check table Field 5 Field 6 T2 Field 7 Primary key Table T1 is called the foreign key table (dependent table) and table T2 the check table (referenced table). The pair of fields for the two tables must have the same data type and length. One field of the foreign key table therefore corresponds to each key field of the check table. This field is called the foreign key field. A foreign key permits you to assign data records in the foreign key table and check table. One record of the foreign key table uniquely identifies one record of the check table using the entries in the foreign key fields. Check Field and Value Check One of the foreign key fields is marked as the check field. This means that the foreign key relationship is maintained for this field. April 2001 19 BC – ABAP Dictionary Foreign Keys SAP AG When an entry is made in the check field, there is a check whether the check table contains a record with the key defined by the values in the foreign key fields. If this is so, the entry is valid. Otherwise the system rejects the entry. Input template for foreign key table T1 Field1 Field2 Field3 Field4 1 3 Field5 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 Check table T2 Field6 1 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 Field7 Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 Text 4 Text 5 Text 6 Text 7 Text 8 Input is valid since there is a corresponding record in the check table In this example the entry Field2 = 2 and Field4 = 2 would be rejected since T2 does not contain a record with the key Field5 = 2 and Field6 = 2. If you do not want to check against all the key fields of the check table, you can exclude fields of the foreign key table from the assignment of the fields to the check table with generic and constant foreign keys [Page 22]. How the Input Check Works A SELECT statement is generated from the definition of the foreign key. If an entry is made in the check field, this SELECT statement is submitted. If a suitable record of the check table is found, the entry is valid. Otherwise the entry is rejected. The corresponding SELECT statement has the following form for the foreign key table shown in the above graphic: SELECT * FROM T2 WHERE T2-FIELD5 = T1-FIELD2 AND T2-FIELD6 = T1-FIELD4. A screen entry for check field Field2 is therefore only valid if the check table contains a record with the entries made in the screen for Field2 and Field4 as key. Table SBOOK in the flight model [Page 302] contains the customer’s flight bookings for a carrier. The flight bookings can be made by a travel agency or directly at the carrier’s sales counter. If the booking was made at a counter, its number is stored together with the booking in field COUNTER in table SBOOK. 20 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Foreign Keys You must make sure that only correct counter numbers can be entered. All the counters are entered in table SCOUNTER. The necessary value check can be defined by creating a foreign key for check field COUNTNUM. Foreign key fields Foreign key table SBOOK MANDT CARRID CONNID FLDATE CUSTOMID †¦ COUNTER †¦ CANCELED Check field Check table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Key fields See also: Multi-Structured Foreign Keys [Page 29] Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys [Page 24] Creating Foreign Keys [Page 75] April 2001 21 BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic and Constant Foreign Keys SAP AG Generic and Constant Foreign Keys It is not always advisable to check a foreign key against all the key fields of the check table. This is true for example for time-dependent check tables and for check tables whose version number is a component of the key. You can use generic foreign keys in these cases. Fields are excluded from the assignment to the key fields of the check table here. The check is only against the remaining key fields. You can also assign a constant value to a key field of the check table. In this case you only have to check against the specified constant. You can use this check if only records of the check table which contain a constant value in this key field are valid. Foreign key table FTAB Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 Field 9 Generic * Constant K Check table PTAB Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 Primary key The corresponding SELECT statement for the screen check has the following form for the foreign key definition in the graphic: SELECT * FROM PTAB WHERE PTAB-FIELD1 = FTAB-FIELD6 AND PTAB-FIELD3 = FTABFIELD8 AND PTAB-FIELD4 = ‘K’. An entry is only valid in check field Field6 if a record of check table PTAB exists containing the input value for Field6 in PTAB-Field1, the input value for Field8 in PTAB-Field3 and constant K in PTAB-Field4. 22 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic and Constant Foreign Keys Input template for foreign key table FTAB Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 Field 9 3 30 1 B Check table PTAB Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 4 A B A K A A C C Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 Text 4 Text 5 Text 6 Text 7 Text 8 Input is valid since Field 7 and Field 9 were removed from the assignment The values entered on the screen for Field7 and Field9 are meaningless when checking against the check table. An entry with Field6 = 1, Field8 = 3 and Field9 = B would not be valid in this case since there is no record with PTAB-Field1 = 1, PTAB-Field3 = 3 and PTAB-Field4 = K in the check table! April 2001 23 BC – ABAP Dictionary Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys SAP AG Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys A foreign key describes a relationship between two tables. You can define this relationship more precisely by specifying the cardinality [Page 25] and type of foreign key fields [Page 26]. This information is optional and is primarily for documentary purposes. In particular, the definitions of the cardinality and type of the foreign key fields are not used in the value check for the foreign key. The definition of the semantic attributes is only sed in the following cases:  · If Key fields of a text table is selected as the type of the foreign key fields, the foreign key table is considered to be the text table [Page 27] for the check table. If a screen field is checked against a table, the key entries of the check table are normally displayed in the input help (F4 help) for this field. If there is a text table for the check table, each key entry displayed is enha nced with an explanatory text (contents of the first character-like field of the text table) in the user’s logon language. Tables can only be included in a help view [Page 115] or maintenance view [Page 117] if they are linked with a foreign key. It only makes sense to create such a help or maintenance view if for each record in the primary table of the view there is no more than one corresponding record in each secondary table of the view. The system therefore checks if the foreign key with which the tables were linked in the view have suitable cardinalities when it creates a maintenance or help view. See also Restrictions for Maintenance and Help Views [Page 119]. The foreign key between tables SBOOK and SCOUNTER ensures that only existing counters can be entered in field COUNTER (counter at which the flight was booked). See the example in Foreign Keys [Page 19] . A booking can be made at either a travel agency or at the carrier’s sales counter. If the booking is made at a travel agency, the field COUNTER of table SBOOK remains empty. The foreign key fields do not have to be filled, that is the left side of the cardinality is C. Any number of bookings may be made at each counter. There may therefore be any number of entries (bookings) in foreign key table SBOOK for each record of the check table SCOUNTER. The right side of the cardinality is therefore CN. Of course several bookings can be made for the same carrier at a counter. These bookings do not differ in their foreign key fields (MANDT, CARRID, COUNTER). The entries in the foreign key fields therefore do not uniquely identify an entry in the foreign key table SBOOK (a booking). The foreign key fields therefore have the type No key fields/candidates. 24 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Cardinality Cardinality The cardinality (n:m) describes the foreign key relationship with regard to the number of possible dependent records (records of the foreign key table) or referenced records (records of the check table). The left side (n) of the cardinality is defined as follows:  ·  · n=1: There is exactly one record assigned to the check table for each record of the foreign key table. n=C: The foreign key table may contain records which do not correspond to any record of the check table because the foreign key field is empty. This can occur for example if the field of the foreign key table is optional, in which case it does not have to be filled. =1: There is exactly one dependent record for each record of the check table. m=C: There is at most one dependent record for each record of the check table. m=N: There is at least one dependent record for each record of the check table. m=CN: There may be any number of dependent records for each record of the check table. The right side (m) of the card inality is defined as follows:  ·  ·  ·  · April 2001 25 BC – ABAP Dictionary Type of Foreign Key Fields SAP AG Type of Foreign Key Fields The Type of foreign key fields describes what the foreign key fields in the foreign key table mean. The following types of foreign key field can be defined:  · No key fields/candidates: The foreign key fields are neither primary key fields of the foreign key table nor do they uniquely identify a record of the foreign key table (key candidates). For this reason, the foreign key fields do not (partially) identify the foreign key table. Key fields/candidates: The foreign key fields are either primary key fields of the foreign key table or they already uniquely identify a record of the foreign key table (key candidates). The foreign key fields therefore (partially) identify the foreign key table. Key fields of a text table: The foreign key table is a text table [Page 27] for the check table, that is the key of the foreign key table only differs from the key of the check table in that it has an additional language key field. This is a special case of the type Key fields/candidates.  ·  · 26 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Text Tables Text Tables Table A is a text table of table B if the key of A comprises the key of B and an additional language key field (field of data type LANG). Table A may therefore contain explanatory text in several languages for each key entry of B. To link the key entries with the text, text table A must be linked with table B using a foreign key. Key fields of a text table must be selected here for the type of foreign key fields (see Semantic Attributes of Foreign Keys [Page 24]). Table B Key fields K1 and K2 K1 †¦ 1 1 †¦ K2 †¦ 1 2 †¦ F1 †¦ XX YY †¦ F2 †¦ YY XX †¦ Text table A for B Key fields K1, K2 and L (type LANG) K1 †¦ 1 1 1 1 †¦ K2 †¦ 1 1 2 2 †¦ L †¦ DE EN DE EN †¦ TEXT †¦ Text 1 (German) Text 1 (English) Text 2 (German) Text 2 (English) †¦ Text foreign key If table B is the check table of a field, the existing key entries of table B are displayed as possible input values when the input help (F4) is pressed. The explanatory text (contents of the first character-like non-key-field of text table A) is also displayed in the user’s logon language for each key value in table B. April 2001 27 BC – ABAP Dictionary Text Tables SAP AG Hit list if user logs on in English K1 †¦ 1 1 K2 †¦ 1 2 †¦ Text †¦ Text1 (English) (English) Text2 (English) (English) †¦ Maintenance screen Field 1 Field 2 †¦ Call the input help Field is checked against table B Only one text table can be created for table B! The system checks this when you attempt to activate a table with text foreign keys for B. 28 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Multi-Structured Foreign Keys Multi-Structured Foreign Keys When you define a foreign key, a field of the work area that is not contained in the foreign key table can also be assigned to a check table (for example a field of another table). This is possible for all fields except for the check field. Table T2 is the check table of foreign key table T1. Field F of the work area is assigned to key field Field6 of check table T2. Foreign key table T1 Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Primary key Field F of work area Check table T2 Field 5 Field 6 Field 7 Primary key The corresponding SELECT statement for the input check is then: SELECT * FROM T2 WHERE T2-FIELD5 = T1-FIELD2 AND T2-FIELD6 = F. If an entry is made in field T1-Field2 (check field), this SELECT statement will be submitted. If a corresponding record is found, the entry is valid; otherwise it is rejected. If a field that is not contained in the foreign key table is assigned to a field of the check table, this field must be filled at the time of the input check. Otherwise the check always fails, and no values can be entered in the check field. April 2001 29 BC – ABAP Dictionary Technical Settings SAP AG Technical Settings The technical settings of a table define how the table will be handled when it is created in the database, that is whether the table will be buffered and whether changes to data records of the table will be logged. The most important parameters are:  ·  · Data class: The data class [Page 31] defines the physical area of the database (tablespace) in which the table should be created. Size category: The size category [Page 32] defines the size of the extents created for the table. When the table is created in the database, the required information about the memory area to be selected and the extent size is determined from the technical settings.  ·  · Buffering permission: The buffering permission [Page 33] defines whether the table may be buffered. Buffering type: If the table may be buffered, you must define a buffering type (full, singlerecord, generic). The buffering type [Page 34] defines how many table records are loaded into the buffer when a table entry is accessed. Logging: This parameter defines whether changes to the table entries should be logged. If logging [Page 41] is switched on, each change to a table record is recorded in a log table.  · The Convert to transparent table flag (transparent flag [Page 42]) is also displayed for pooled tables or for tables which were converted into transparent tables earlier on with this flag. See also: Maintaining Technical Settings [Page 77] Buffering Database Tables [Page 43] 30 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Data Class Data Class If you choose the data class correctly, your table is automatically assigned to the correct area (tablespace or DBspace) of the database when it is created. Each data class corresponds to a physical area in which all the tables assigned to this data class are stored. There are the following data classes:  ·  ·  · APPL0 (master data): Data which is seldomly changed. An example of master data is the data contained in an address file, such as the name, address and telephone number. APPL1 (transaction data): Data that is frequently changed. An example of transaction data is the goods in a warehouse, which change after each purchase order. APPL2 (organizational data): Customizing data that is defined when the system is installed and seldomly changed. An example is the table with country codes. Two further data classes, USR and USR1, are provided for the customer. These are for user developments. The tables assigned to these data classes are stored in a tablespace for user developments. Tables in the ABAP Dictionary Master data Table 1 Table 3 Organizational data Table 2 Transaction data Table 4 Table 7 System data Table 5 Table 6 Tablespace master data Table 1 Table 3 Tablespace Org. data Table 2 Tablespace Trans. data Table 4 Table 7 Tablespace System data Table 5 Table 6 Database April 2001 31 BC – ABAP Dictionary Size Category SAP AG Size Category The size category defines the expected space required for the table in the database. You can choose a size category from 0 to 4 for your table. Each category is assigned a certain fixed memory size in the database, which depends on the database system used. When a table is created, initial space (an Initial Extent) is reserved in the database. If more space is required at a later time due to data entries, additional memory will be added depending on the selected size category. Technical settings Size category TABA 1 3 4 TABB TABC Initial First Second Extent Extent Extent TABA TABB TABC †¦ †¦ †¦ Database Selecting the correct size category prevents a large number of very small extents from being created for a table. It also prevents space from being wasted if extents which are too large are created. 32 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Buffering Permission Buffering Permission You must define whether and how a table is buffered in the technical settings for the table. There are three possibilities here:  · Buffering not permitted: Table buffering is not permitted, for example because application programs always need the most recent data from the table or the table is changed too frequently. Buffering permitted but not activated: Buffering is permitted from the business and technical points of view. Applications which access the table execute correctly with and without table buffering. Whether or not table buffering will result in a gain in performance depends on the table size and access profile of the table (frequency of the different types of table access). Table buffering is deactivated because it is not possible to know what these values will be in the customer system. If table buffering would be advantageous for the table size and access profile of the table, you can activate it in the customer system at any time. Buffering activated: The table should be buffered. In this case you must specify a buffering type [Page 34].  ·  · See also: Buffering Database Tables [Page 43] Which Tables Should be Buffered? [Page 53] April 2001 33 BC – ABAP Dictionary Buffering Types SAP AG Buffering Types The buffering type defines which table records are loaded into the buffer of the application server when a table record is accessed. There are the following buffering types:  ·  · Full buffering [Page 35]: All the records of the table are loaded into the buffer when one record of the table is accessed. Generic buffering [Page 37]: When a record of the table is accessed, all the records having this record in the generic key fields (part of the table key that is left-justified, identified by specifying a number of key fields) are loaded into the buffer. Single-record buffering [Page 39]: Only the records of a table that are really accessed are loaded into the buffer.  · See also: Buffering Database Tables [Page 43] 34 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Full Buffering Full Buffering With full buffering, either the entire table is in the buffer or the table is not in the buffer at all. All the records of the table are loaded into the buffer when one record of the table is read. In this example, a program reads the record highlighted in red from table SCOUNTER. If the table is fully buffered, all the records of the table are loaded into the buffer. Database table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Buffer contents 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM 01 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM Application server SELECT * FROM SCOUNTER WHERE MANDT = ‘001’ AND CARRID = ‘LH†™ AND COUNTNUM = ‘00000004’. The buffered data records are sorted in the buffer by table key. Accesses to the buffered data can therefore only analyze field contents up to the last specified key field for restricting the dataset to be searched. The left-justified part of the key should therefore be as large as possible in such accesses. For example, if you do not define the first key field, the system has to scan the full table. In this case direct access to the database can be more efficient if the database has suitable secondary indexes [Page 61]. When Should you Use Full Buffering? When deciding whether a table should be fully buffered, you should take into account the size of the table, the number of read accesses, and the number of write accesses. Tables best suited to full buffering are small, read frequently, and rarely written. Full buffering is recommended in the following cases: April 2001 35 BC – ABAP Dictionary Full Buffering  · SAP AG Tables up to 30 KB in size. If a table is accessed frequently, but all accesses are read accesses, this value can be exceeded. However, you should always pay attention to the buffer utilization. Larger tables where large numbers of records are frequently accessed. If these mass accesses can be formulated with a very selective WHERE condition using a database index [Page 61], it could be better to dispense with buffering. Tables for which accesses to non-existent records are frequently submitted. Since all the table records reside in the buffer, the system can determine directly in the buffer whether or not a record exists.  ·  · 36 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic Buffering Generic Buffering With generic buffering, all the records in the buffer whose generic key fields match this record are loaded when one record of the table is accessed. The generic key is a part of the primary key of the table that is left-justified. In this example, the record highlighted in red is read by a program from table SCOUNTER. If the table is generically buffered, all the records read whose generic key fields (MANDT and CARRID) agree are loaded into the buffer. Database table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Buffer contents 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM Application server Generic key SELECT * FROM SCOUNTER WHERE MANDT = ‘001’ AND CARRID = ‘LH’ AND COUNTNUM = ‘00000004’. When Should you Use Full Buffering? A table should be buffered generically if only certain generic areas of the table are normally needed for processing. Client-specific, fully-buffered tables are automatically generically buffered since normally it is not possible to work in all clients at the same time on an application server. The client field is the generic key. Language-specific tables are another example where generic buffering is recommended. In general, only records of one language will be needed on an application server. In this case, the generic key includes all the key fields up to and including the language field. How Should you Define the Generic Key? In generic buffering, it is crucial to define a suitable generic key. April 2001 37 BC – ABAP Dictionary Generic Buffering SAP AG If the generic key is too small, the buffer will contain a few very large areas. During access, too much data might be loaded in the buffer. If the generic key is too large, the buffer might contain too many small generic areas. These can reduce buffer performance since there is an administrative entry for every buffered generic area. It is also possible that too many accesses will bypass the buffer and go directly to the database, since they do not fully define the generic key of the table. If there are only a few records in each generic area, it is usually better to fully buffer the table. Only 64 bytes of the generic key are used. You can specify a longer generic key, but the part of the key exceeding 64 bytes is not used to create the generic areas. Access to Buffered Data It only makes sense to generically buffer a table if the table is accessed with fully-specified generic key fields. If a field of the generic key is not assigned a value in a SELECT statement, it is read directly from the database, bypassing the buffer. If you access a generic area that is not in the buffer with a fully-specified generic key, you will access the database to load the area. If the table does not contain any records in the specified area (â€Å"No record found†), this area in the buffer is marked as non-existent. It is not necessary to access the database if this area is needed again. 8 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Single-Record Buffering Single-Record Buffering With single-record buffering, only the records that are actually read are loaded into the buffer. Single-record buffering therefore requires less storage space in the buffer than generic and full buffering. The administrative costs in the buffer, however, are greater than for generic or f ull buffering. Considerably more database accesses are necessary to load the records than for the other buffering types. In this example, the record highlighted in red is read by a program from table SCOUNTER. If single-record buffering is selected for the table, only the record that was read is loaded into the buffer. Database table SCOUNTER MANDT CARRID COUNTNUM AIRPORT Buffer contents 001 LH 00000004 LCY 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 001 AA BA BA BA BA LH LH LH LH LH LH LH LH UA 00000001 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000001 00000002 00000003 00000004 00000005 00000006 00000007 00000008 00000001 ACA ACE BER LCY LHR BER DEN FRA LCY LGW LHR MUC RTM HAM Application server SELECT SINGLE FROM SCOUNTER WHERE MANDT = ‘001’ AND CARRID = ‘LH’ AND COUNTNUM = ‘00000004’. When Should you Use Single-Record Buffering? Single-record buffering should be used particularly for large tables where only a few records are accessed with SELECT SINGLE. The size of the records being accessed should be between 100 and 200 KB. Full buffering is usually more suitable for smaller tables that are accessed frequently. This is because only one database access is necessary to load such a table with full buffering, whereas several database accesses are necessary for single-record buffering. Access to Buffered Data All accesses that are not submitted with SELECT SINGLE go directly to the database, bypassing the buffer. This applies even if the complete key is specified in the SELECT statement. April 2001 39 BC – ABAP Dictionary Single-Record Buffering SAP AG If you access a record which is not yet buffered with SELECT SINGLE, there is a database access to load the record. This record is marked in the buffer as non-existent if the table does not contain a record with the specified key. This prevents another database access when accessing the table at a later time with the same key. 40 April 2001 SAP AG BC – ABAP Dictionary Logging Logging Using the logging flag you can define whether changes to the data records of a table should be logged. If logging is switched on, each change to an existing data record (with UPDATE, DELETE) by the user or application program is recorded in the database in a log table (DBTABPRT). ABAP Dictionary Log TAB Application transaction TAB Change a record Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 System profile †¦ rec/client =ALL †¦ TAB Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Log table Database To switch on logging, the R/3 System must be started with a profile containing parameter rec/client. This parameter defines whether all clients or only selected clients should be logged. The parameter can have the following values: rec/client = ALL Log all clients. ec/client = 000[,†¦ ] Log the specified clients. rec/client = OFF Do not log. Logging slows down accesses that change the table. First of all, a record must be written in the log table for each change. Secondly, a number of users access this log table in parallel. This can cause lock situations although the users are working with different application tables. L ogging is independent of the update. The existing logs can be displayed with Transaction Table History (SCU3). April 2001 41 BC – ABAP Dictionary Converting Pooled Tables to Transparent Tables SAP AG Converting Pooled Tables to Transparent Tables How to cite Abap Data Dictionary, Papers

Clinical Reasoning Cycle In Nursing Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Clinical Reasoning Cycle In Nursing. Answer: Introduction: Clinical reasoning cycle is one of the most effective tools that are used by the nursing professionals to provide a comprehensive care to the patients. This procedure contains eight important steps which is carried on properly will help the professionals to give the best care to the patient in a sequential manner which will address all her symptoms effectively (Dalton, Gee Levett-Jones, 2015). Dementia and Alzheimers disease affect the lives of many old men and women in Australia. There are more than 413106 patients living in the nation with dementia and the 228238 (55%) are female and 184161(45%). This number would increase to 536164 by 2025. are male In this case study, the nurse will also follow the tool to address each of the nursing issues of the patients and with the sequential steps, he will effectively develop a care plan that will be beneficial for the patients recovery fork her present situation. Considering the patient situation, collecting cues, processing and presenting related health information: Clinical reason cycle is often used by a large number of healthcare professionals as it acts as a tool which helps them to sequentially collect cues about the patients condition, process the information and also come to an understanding of the patient problems (Hunter Arthur, 2016). This toll then helps the nurse to plan and develop interventions which ultimately help in the evaluation of the outcome followed by the reflection o the nurse form this entire episode. Form the case study, it is seen that the patient is a widow who has been residing in an aged care facility and has returned from hospitals after a hip replacement after fall in the rehabilitation center. She is in the preliminary stage of the Alzheimers disorder and vascular dementia. She is also not used to walking with wheelie walker and has been bruised due to bumping on the walker. Previously, she used to be strong independent minded person and therefore she cannot accept the fact that she is dependent now on carers fo r her daily activities. Therefore she is being rude to the carers and are not helping them in her care. She is also intermittently incontinent due to her failure in reaching toilet on time. Mostly old people of Australia are found to suffer from dementia and Alzheimers and the patient had been no exception. Her will to walk alone makes her more risky towards fall as he is yet not habituated with the fact that her mobility is reduced and she needs assistance in walking. The occurrence of the disorder has affected the patient who has therefore developed shuffling, leaning patterns, unsteady balance and also decreased coordination as well as physical strength as they are the common symptoms of dementia. The unsteady balance may also be due to the medical as well as physical reason of Alzheimers which cause occurrence of plaques in the brain of the individuals and tangles as well (Koivisto et al., 2016). The cause of the incontinence may be due to the presence of Alzheimers diseases whi ch results in development of overactive bladders those results in leakage of urine involuntarily before reaching restrooms. The falls are mainly due to unsteady balance and inability to be practiced with restricted movement. She also has a tear in her lower right leg and therefore it is also causing her huge pain which also needs to be addressed. Identification and prioritization of three nursing issues: Three important areas need to be addressed by the nurses who will be in charge of the patient. While identifying the domains, where the patient will require care, it is also important for the nurse to keep in mind that she is in the first stages of dementia and Alzheimers diseases and therefore a patient centred care with compassion and empathy is important in the case (Kuiper, Pesut Arms, 2016). Firstly, the patient is yet not accustomed with the fact that she is having restricted mobility and therefore she is not careful in her movement and was not able to conduct her activities independently and therefore it is important for the nurse to conduct a fall risk assessment and take precautionary measures accordingly. Secondly, the patient is having a large tear in her lower right leg and therefore the nurse should undertake proper dressing procedure for the healing of the bruises. It should be taken care that she is quite aged and her healing should require more time and therefore pro per planning and care should be taken by the nurse wile caring for her wound. Thirdly, the patient has intermittent incontinence and therefore it very much important for the nurse to undertake proper interventions so that the issue can be handled properly and the patient does not have leaked urine before reaching the restroom. Establishment of goals of nursing care: The nurse should first conduct FRAT which is a fall risk assessment tool that was actually developed by Peninsula Health Falls Prevention service in the year 1999. It mainly contains three parts which are assessing falls risk status, risk factor checklist and also developing action plan. This will help the nurse to develop an idea about the severity of the issue and following this the interventions to prevent fall will be developed (Palvelen et al., 2014). The nurse should ask herself self assessment question regarding the patients risk of fall, communicate with the patient, and also take undertake environmental changes such as adequate lighting, developing visual contrast, keeping pathways clear and others. Secondly the nurse should follow a proper wound dressing procedure which will help the patient to overcome the pain from her tear and also help it to get dry soon. She will also be assessed on the pain management scale from 1 to 10 and depending upon her score, interventions need to be taken for both of her wound management. Moreover she had gone hip arthroplasty and therefore she may also face pain in the surgical sites which also needs to be checked. Hence, pain management should be done accordingly so that both the factor can be addresses (Joshi et al., 2014). The third intervention would be to take proper care for the patients issue in urination as she is suffering from incontinence. The goal should be that the patient has reduced episode of such independence, receive assistance in such time; can overcome environmental barriers, allocation of proper adaptive equipment and others (Teunisen et al., 2015). The main goal of the nurse should however be an overall comprehensive care to the patient by attending all her symptoms of the Alzheimer and dementia so that the patient can age well with a better quality life in the aged care. Nursing care for the person: After assessing the fall risk assessment, the nurse should accordingly take actions. Besides advising the patients with proper precautions (the patient is in preliminary stage so her cognitive ability is not completely lost), the nurse should make the environment risk free as much as possible (Vlayen et al., 2015). She should ensure adequate lighting, reduction of glare and also limit the shadows. She should also provide the patient with visual; contrast by using obvious contrast in colour to define objects form the background, using of solid colours with in pattern to decrease confusion and also avoiding black surfaces which the patient might misinterpret as black hole as her cognitive ability is declining. Her pathways should be kept clear by keeping the surface level dry and non slippery. The floors, furniture and the outdoors would be modified accordingly. The nurse should also enhance accessibility by keeping important things in visible, easy to reach places, using a firm mattre ss, using adaptive equipment and also lowering the bed light. The bathroom should have increase safety by sing bath chairs, proper bathroom rails, properly placed bards, using right footwear (Miake et al., 2013) For management of the pain after hip replacement surgery, the nurse should use proper pain assessment scales, maintain proper position of the operated extremity and also provide her with comfort measures that include frequent repositioning and diversion activities. Stress management techniques should be encouraged like progressive relaxation, meditation, guided imagery and others (Wilson, 2017). Proper pain management medications should be provided on a regular schedule and before activities. The nurse should also be alert and investigate reports for suffering severe joint pain, muscular spasms and changes in joint mobility, severe chest pain and restlessness. Application of ice packs, initiation and maintenance of extremity mobilization ambulation, light exercise and physical therapies should also be conducted. For the bruises, she should use the correct dressing depending upon the depth and condition for the wound, change them at the correct interval and apply the right medication so that the wound may dry as rapid as it can (Benditz et al., 2016). For maintaining her incontinence issue, the nurse should first introduce a toileting schedule, eliminate all the environmental barriers to the washroom in the care, improve lighting in hallways and bathrooms and also remove rugs form the floor is any present. The nurse can also use urinary receptacle in 3 in 1 commode, containment device. Clothing should be such that it maximizes toileting access of the patient. A prompted voiding program or patterned urge response toileting program should be initiated. Frequency of urination with the sue of alarm clock, changing device, noting urinary elimination and incontinence pattern, starting prompted toileting program on the results of the toileting frequency, parsing the patient when toileting occurs with prompting all helps in managing the situation effectively (Zarowitz et al., 2015). Evaluation of the nursing strategies: For each of the nursing priorities, the nurse should set up a timeframe until which she would be continuing the interventions. Then she would be conducting an evaluation of the results of each of the interventions. If they are achieved successfully or are showing positive results, the interventions should be carried out. If the outcomes are not positive, the nurse should discuss the case with mentor and introduce new interventions in accordance with the situation. Reflection on the patients outcomes: While handling the case study, it was getting really difficult for me to handle so many co-morbidities together and I was getting stressed and was not being able to manage the interventions properly. However, with the guide of the mentor, I correctly made a care plan for the patient and followed ach of the intervention appropriately. Moreover, as she was not complying with us, I had a counselling session with her, where I treated her with compassion and empathy providing her the autonomy and dignity to take her own decisions. This helped me to develop a therapeutic relationship with her where she also started helping me in the interventions and her cooperations made the process easier and also made me stress free. Conclusion: From the case study, the nursing priorities were first indentified. Following the identification of the priorities, proper interventions were introduced. Effective pain management, proper management of incontinence, proper care for her fall management risks had been taken effectively. Following the application of the intervention, evaluation of the outcomes is needed to be done by the nurse to ensure safe practice and quality care. The nurse should reflect the entire process in order to gain new insights from the experience. Therefore, following a clinical reasoning cycle, a nurse can effectively manage patient and care for her to give her a better quality life. References: Benditz, A., Greimel, F., Auer, P., Zeman, F., Gttermann, A., Grifka, J., ... von Kunow, F. (2016). Can consistent benchmarking within a standardized pain management concept decrease postoperative pain after total hip arthroplasty? A prospective cohort study including 367 patients.Journal of pain research,9, 1205. Dalton, L., Gee, T., Levett-Jones, T. (2015). Using clinical reasoning and simulation-based education to'flip'the Enrolled Nurse curriculum.Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The,33(2), 29. Hunter, S., Arthur, C. (2016). Clinical reasoning of nursing students on clinical placement: Clinical educators' perceptions.Nurse education in practice,18, 73-79. Joshi, G. P., Schug, S. A., Kehlet, H. (2014). Procedure-specific pain management and outcome strategies.Best Practice Research Clinical Anaesthesiology,28(2), 191-201. Koivisto, J. M., Multisilta, J., Niemi, H., Katajisto, J., Eriksson, E. (2016). Learning by playing: A cross-sectional descriptive study of nursing students' experiences of learning clinical reasoning.Nurse education today,45, 22-28. Kuiper, R., Pesut, D. J., Arms, T. E. (2016).Clinical reasoning and care coordination in advanced practice nursing. Springer Publishing Company. Miake-Lye, I. M., Hempel, S., Ganz, D. A., Shekelle, P. G. (2013). Inpatient Fall Prevention Programs as a Patient Safety StrategyA Systematic Review.Annals of internal medicine,158(5_Part_2), 390-396. Palvanen, M., Kannus, P., Piirtola, M., Niemi, S., Parkkari, J., Jrvinen, M. (2014). Effectiveness of the Chaos Falls Clinic in preventing falls and injuries of home-dwelling older adults: a randomised controlled trial.Injury,45(1), 265-271. Teunissen, D. T., Stegeman, M. M., Bor, H. H., Lagro-Janssen, T. A. (2015). Treatment by a nurse practitioner in primary care improves the severity and impact of urinary incontinence in women. An observational study.BMC urology,15(1), 51. Vlaeyen, E., Coussement, J., Leysens, G., Van der Elst, E., Delbaere, K., Cambier, D., ... Dejaeger, E. (2015). Characteristics and Effectiveness of Fall Prevention Programs in Nursing Homes: A Systematic Review and Meta?Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.Journal of the American Geriatrics Society,63(2), 211-221. Wilson, A. (2017). Assistive devices, hip precautions, environmental modifications and training to prevent dislocation and improve function after hip arthroplasty.International Journal of Nursing Studies. Zarowitz, B. J., Allen, C., O'Shea, T., Tangalos, E., Berner, T., Ouslander, J. G. (2015). Clinical burden and nonpharmacologic management of nursing facility residents with overactive bladder and/or urinary incontinence.The Consultant Pharmacist,30(9), 533-542.

Emergency Management in US

Executive Summary After the 9-11 terrorist attack, the National Commission on Terrorism attack did an extensive investigation to look for security loopholes and address inadequacies in the intelligence community, federal and local governments (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Emergency Management in US specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although most parts of the report put a lot of emphasis on intelligence failures, some parts of the recommendations report focused on weakness about emergency response and preparedness unit. Even though the commission paid tribute and congratulated those who helped in responding to the September 11, 2001 disaster (responders), especially the firefighters, police, and the public in general, the recommendation argued that most government units were to blame for not having an adequate plan in place to deal with emergency of such magnitude. To h elp in making a secured future and planning adequately for any emergency, the 9-11 commission made three major recommendations to help in areas emergency response and preparedness. First, the commission proposed for adoption and implementation of ICS nationwide, which would be effective in coordination and communication among various units. Secondly, the commission requested the Congress to pass a legislation that would ensure implementation of mutual aid in all states and their jurisdiction. Lastly, yet very important, the commission requested Department of Homeland security (DHS) to facilitate the implementation of ANS emergency policies in all private sectors to reduce vulnerability. This three major recommendations and others are very necessary and there implementation is good for national security. Emergence Management After the destructive September 9, 2001terrorism attack in the US soil, the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks carried out an extensive study to indentify security loopholes in order to develop a sustainable solution for safety of American citizens (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). In that attack, quite a large number of individuals (in thousands) were saved although many people lost lives in what is considered to have been caused by inefficient emergency management unit. It is argued that many people lost lives because standard emergency and safety measures were not set in place adequately.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To correct the inefficiencies indentified and ensure that such a situation would not happen in the future, the â€Å"9/11 commission† report made some recommendations to be adopted. This paper will discuss the report or recommendations prepared by National Commission on Terrorist Attack and assess whether the proposed changes were necessary and justifiable. Discussion In general, the recom mendations and changes proposed by the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (9/11 commission) were made in concern to the security issues facing the US (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The proposals were made on the principles that, there was a need to improve and develop a national emergency squad that would be the ability to handle any form of disaster, be it natural or man-made. After the commission released its recommendations to the public, immediately, a debate rose concerning all the major changes proposed. In this paper, both the implications and consequences of implementing the proposed changes will be assessed in a careful manner. The proposals made by the â€Å"9/11 Commission† put a lot of emphasizes on the need to develop the intelligence community of the US in an attempt to tighten security of the nation for the safety of American citizens (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). In addition to developing the intelligence unit, the commission m ade a number of recommendations to improve the emergency response unit so as to enhance more efficiency. This would be made possible by adopting â€Å"use of standard modes of organization, legislation, and planning† (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks).The commission concluded that actions taken by citizens, public safety personnel, and other departments in managing the â€Å"horrific event† were to be admired as they played a big role in saving human lives. On the other hand, the commission argued that the disaster had been very intense due to poor or insufficient preparation, lack of proper organization among different units, and lack of sufficient technological capacity. According to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (NCTA), the horrific terrorist attack on 9/11 proved that even the strongest emergency response unit could easily be shaken if the attack is of an immense magnitude. Because of this particular crisis, the commission saw the need to imp rove emergency response unit both in the federal and local governments. In order to assess whether the recommendations or changes proposed were necessary, it is imperative to have an overview of the commission’s findings.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Emergency Management in US specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Commission’s recommendations As a measure to ensure development of a strong emergency response unit, the 9/11 commission made the following three major recommendations. Foremost, â€Å"the emergency response agencies nationwide should adopt the Incident Command System (ICS)† (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). Where multiple security bodies are involved, the report recommended that such agencies should adopt and implement a unified command (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The commission made specific recommendations for homeland security urging the agency to use th e ICS and unified command by end of October 2004 (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The department of homeland was urged to support the program by funding and training all its officials in accordance with ICS and Unified command procedures (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The second major recommendation proposed by the 9/11 commission is that the congress would pass legislation to ensure there was support and cooperation in all states as a future disaster plan. The legislation to be passed was to be long-term to ensure that the adoption of public security mutual aid national wide (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The third, yet very important recommendation targeted the private sectors and individuals. The commission proposed the application of the American National Standard Institute’s (ANSI) recommendations for private emergency preparedness (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). In a statement, the commission said, â€Å"We believe that compliance with the standard should define the standard of care owed by a company to its employees and the public for legal purposes† (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). As such, emergency preparedness in all private sectors was not an option but a requirement that would serve to protect individuals against any form of disaster. In addition to these three recommendations, the commission also proposed a number of response strategies that would guarantee urgent situation preparedness. The report specifically requested the Congress to re-assess all existing federal emergency response resources (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). This recommendation was directed to the Congress because it has the command and power to influence all involved authorities to revise the existing policies.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Lastly, the commission urged the Congress to tighten up measures in order to re-evaluate the emergency responder and national health program. This measure was to be effected considering that the public and responders (police and emergence agencies) had experienced a number of medical problems since the 9/11 terrorist attack (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). In addition, the congress was requested to carry out regular health assessment to public sectors. Analysis of the recommendations In order to assess whether the recommendations are necessary, the paper will look at each of the proposed solution one at a time. Adoption of the Incident Command System (ICS) According to the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (9/11 commission), an effective disaster plan can only be achieved through full implementation of ICS by all emergency response bodies. For a long time now, the Incidence Command system (ICS) has been effective and helpful in responding to different disasters in different regions and units. In reality, terrorism has been named as one of the highest forms of security hazards in the world today. If truth be told, terrorism poses a big danger to American citizens and the entire world as well. In a situation where there is terrorism attack not only is the public at risk, but even responders are too (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). This is because other explosives resulting from the primary explosions also pose dangers to tragedy response team. However, with the adoption of ICS, all responders are protected. Nonetheless, all safety standards must be adhered to as inadequate coordination of crucial strategies may cause of safety hazards hence posing a great danger to responders. This is the reason why training is necessary for proper implementation of the recommendations. Is this proposal necessary? A proposal to adopt and fully implement the Incidence Command System would facilitate internal communications (National Commission on Terr orist Attacks). One major reason why 9/11 bombing was successful is that the intelligence department lacked adequate coordination and effective communication affecting emergency response (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). With application of ICS, it easy to overcome all challenges that hinder successful coordination and communication in times of crisis. As such, it is clear that recommendations campaigning for adoption of ICS are necessary and justifiable. This is also because 9/11 event brought confusion and lack of coordination among the emergency response personnel. With proper implementation of Incidence Command, the system can effectively improve and enhance collective security, enhance information distribution, and it can decrease levels of confusion to the respond emergency units. The ICS is effective in facilitating coordination of numerous response actions. Therefore, adoption of ICS is very imperative. Mutual Aid The commission requested the Congress to pass legis lation to facilitate mutual aid in all sectors (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). With the proposal, all states were integrated in the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) rules, which govern policies accepted by different states to smooth the progress of mutual aid provision whenever any form of disaster occurs (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). Under these policies, officers and Emergency Response Unit workers can offer other states assistance in case of a catastrophe. Is this proposal necessary? The proposal to facilitate adoption of mutual aid in all states is very necessary. This is because mutual aid is a basic essential resource in providing a wide range of solutions whenever a crisis of a huge magnitude occurs. Different states have different physical and financial capability to equip its region with appropriate resources necessary to respond to any form of disasters (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). Due to this imbalance, mutual aid hel ps bring equilibrium, maintain, and put adequate resources together to respond to any form of tragedy such as terrorism attack or floods among others. With mutual aid, states unite resources in the most effective way without incurring the costs of purchasing different emergency response resources. As such, the mutual aid program is cost effective. In addition to this, the â€Å"Mutual Aid system help package† all required crisis responses materials which can fit in different situations. It is also effective in that it entails coordination with other tragedy response units such as Federal Management Emergence Agency (FMEA). Certainly, the proposal to implement adoption of mutual aid is very necessary. ANSI Emergency preparedness standards The Commission urged the Department of Homeland Security to encourage implementation of ANSI standards as a procedure of emergency preparedness by all private divisions (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The commission however clearl y said that this particular recommendation was deliberate and not mandatory. The commission stated that the Congress and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) had a duty to encourage all private sectors to adopt all proposed safety standards (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). Is this proposal necessary? The adoption of these policies is justifiable. It is estimated that about eighty five percent (85%) of all essential structures in the US belong or are owned by the private sectors (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). In case of any terrorism attack that is not aimed at government facilities or the military structures, the first groups of people who may provide help (responders) are more likely to be civilians. In such a situation, the DHS and national disaster preparedness team would definitely begin with the private divisions. Just before putting this recommendation forward, the commission had observed that most private sectors were inadequately unprepared for any f orm of terrorism. No doubt, lack of such preparedness in all private sectors posed and still poses a great risk to safety of thousands civilians. Over the years, â€Å"the National Standard for preparedness† has played a big role in ensuring that all private sectors implement the ANSI safety measures (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). With proper implementation of preparedness in all private sectors, adequate policies to evacuate people in terror attack facilities would be put in place, there would be increased communication capabilities with all involved stakeholders, and a continuity plan operation would be put in place too (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). Thus, the recommendations to adopt ANSI emergency preparedness standards are not only justifiable, but are also necessary. Conclusion Emergencies such as terrorism attack, Hurricanes, and Tsunamis are major causes of shock, confusion, and death to both the victims and responders. Because of the outcome s associated with disasters, there is a great need to develop and implement an effective disaster management plan to ensure any forms of tragedies are well catered for before they even happen. Experts and researchers have argued that lack of coordination and insufficiency in emergency management plan were major reasons why a big damage was incurred and thousands of lives were lost in the 9-11 terrorism attack. To avoid such a situation in the future, the National Commission on Terrorism Attack was formed (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). After an extensive investigation, the commission made recommendations that would help the US government to â€Å"protect against and prepare for terrorist attacks† (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks). The proposed changes targeted both public and private sectors urging them to increase and improve their emergency capability to effectively deal or rather respond smoothly to any other form of disaster in future days. In this es say, all the recommendations have been discussed looking at the implications and application of each proposed change. After carefully evaluating the benefits associated with all recommended changes, this paper concludes that indeed all the proposed changes are necessary and therefore warranted. Works Cited National Commission on Terrorist Attacks (NCTA). The 9/11 Commission Report. 2004. Web. http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/index.htm This essay on Emergency Management in US was written and submitted by user Aditya Morales to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Taking Home The Wrong Message Essay Example

Taking Home The Wrong Message Essay Example Taking Home The Wrong Message Essay Taking Home The Wrong Message Essay How many times have you been cautioned of eating too many saturated fats? Manfully increase your risk of heart disease! Youll be diagnosed with diabetes if you dont stray away from those dreadful things! This has been the message from the U. S government since 1970. An article published in Scientific American by Melinda Moyer, noted that recently however, a spate of new research, including a meta- analysis of nearly two dozen studies, suggests Researchers were pointing their fingers at the wrong culprit (Moyer 19). In the article, Moyer offers three studies in which she attempts to pin refined carbohydrates as the guilty party threatening the heart. These studies seem to appeal mostly toward the female gender, rather than the population as a whole. For example, directing ones attention like so can raise questions from readers like, Why does this apply to me? This can make the articles purpose unclear, confusing, and ultimately misleading to readers if they are unable to identify with it. The first study that Moyer presents is very general. It could easily be understood by both men and woman and equally appeals to both groups. The study, overseen by Ronald M. Krause, combines nearly 350,000 peoples daily food intake over a period of almost 23 years and compares their risk of developing cardiovascular heart disease. Karakuls findings were extremely contradictory to the old logic because he found no association between the amount of saturated fat consumed and the risk of heart disease (Moyer 19). The biggest issue with the old logic being found now is that bad cholesterol is not the greatest predator of risk so to speak. The study could have easily included men and women, and the findings loud be applied to help both sexes. The next study that the author offers readers is very similar to the first study. Meir Stauffer, professor of nutrition and epidemiology at the Harvard School of Public Health, co-authored a study that followed three hundred twenty-two moderately obese individuals for two years as they adopted one of three diets; a low-fat calories restricted diet; a Mediterranean restricted-calorie diet high in vegetables and low in red meat; or a low-carbohydrate, restricted-calorie diet. His findings were that the individuals who ate the low-Carr diet had the highest Asia of saturated fat ended up losing twice as much weight as their counterparts (Moyer 20). This study, much like the first, has the ability to interest both men and women. The study of three hundred twenty-two people could have included a mix of the sexes, therefore allowing all to incorporate these findings into their lifestyles. Streamers findings ultimately mean that saturated arent so bad for us and it indicates that carbohydrates could be worse for everyone. And finally, the third study that Moyer offers readers was once again led by Meir Stauffer. In 1997 he co- authored in the Journal of the American Medical Association which evaluated sixty- five thousand women and they were able to find the percentage of women who had the highest glycerin index. Those with the highest index were forty-seven percent more likely to acquire type 2 diabetes than those with the lowest glycerin index score. This trend may be explained by the effect that high glycerin-index carbohydrates have on blood glucose, which stimulates fat production as well as inflammation (Moyer 21). Unlike the first and second study that Moyer presents be helpful and resourceful to the male gender, it doesnt necessarily apply to them. In conclusion, these studies seem to appeal more toward the female gender, rather than the population as a whole. The first study, a very general study, can be applied to everyone, both man and woman. The second study goes a little more in depth, but sticks with the idea that the findings can be applied to everyones life. And finally the third study, conducted with all women and no men, has the ability to capture the interest of mostly women. Although the findings could be found useful and interesting to a man, it would be imprecise how the study could be applied to him.

Describe the kind of preception suggested in 'A Child's view of Essay

Describe the kind of preception suggested in 'A Child's view of colour' and 'Metaphors on Vision' and relate that to your percep - Essay Example In the essay, â€Å"From Metaphors on Vision,† Stan Brakhage confirms the power and beauty of perception that is unfettered by logic. Like Benjamin, Brakhage asserts that infants, who have not yet acquired human logic, possess the purest perceptions because they have not learned the meaning of fear. These notions of â€Å"perception† are applied on Lynne Ramsay’s 1999 film, Ratcatcher. Ratcatcher demonstrates the different visions of a good life from the viewpoints of the director, children, and the audience because of their varied, potentially conflicting, perceptions of images that are caused by differences in how these three groups perceive, understand, and express the film’s colours, sounds, composition, and sequences. Before going through the claims of the essay, an overview of the film is essential to understanding its elements. The setting of the film is Glasgow in 1973. During this time, Glasgow suffers from poor housing conditions that are worsene d when the garbage collectors go on strike. Because of the strike, garbage accumulates and pollutes the surroundings. The government balances numerous priorities, as it pursues a development program that includes a housing project and seeks to resolve the problem of the garbage workers going on strike. James Gillespie (William Eadie) is the main protagonist of the film, where he and his family are waiting to be re-housed in one of the newly built apartments of the government (Ratcatcher). James’ friend is Ryan Quinn (Thomas McTaggart), who is supposed to visit his father in jail. Instead of going to his father, Ryan plays with James (Ratcatcher). Their rough play has resulted to Ryan’s drowning in the canal. James feels guilty because he has not alarmed the neighbours of what happened, and instead, he runs away. James has other friends, Margaret Anne (Leanne Mullen) and Kenny (John Miller), who all have their personal issues. The rough boys in the neighbourhood make fu n of Kenny and Margaret Anne, while also sexually abusing the latter. The military arrives to clean the rubbish in the area, but somehow, James feels that only the outside aspect of their social dilemma is cleansed. He jumps into the canal and commits suicide, while the film ends with the vision of his family relocating to their new house. To begin the analysis of â€Å"perception,† Ratcatcher illustrates the perception of the director of a good life that can be described as limited and delimiting. The difference between limited and delimiting is that limited pertains to the film as it is, a limited view of life, while delimiting pertains to the intentions and biases of the director that affect what can be included and not included in the elements of the film. The director controls the camera, which, as a tool of perception, can only include a semblance of reality. In the bus scene, where James runs away and rides a bus, he sees mounds of trash from the bus windows (Ratcatche r). The bus windows are similar to the camera. It can only catch what is in front of it without fully covering everything and without completely conveying what the presence and absence of images mean. The scene exposes the limitations of the camera as an eye for the director, and in connection, to the viewers. Brakhage states that the camera can only capture so much, as it superimposes images on one another and attempts to cover varied motions and emotions (122). He argues that the camera eye is a limited peek into the world.

Short critical refelction paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Short critical refelction paper - Essay Example I know many teenagers who can download movies, post to Facebook, find a YouTube video and more, but the minute they need to learn something there is a lack of knowledge. Am I wrong here? What would the author of the textbook say? Explain. Without a doubt, with every new interface and technology innovation comes a lack of knowledge even amongst teens. However, teens are more likely to take interest in these things and investigate these matters even more. Hence, teenagers become experts at the technological sphere. Most teenagers learn something through other friend and through trial and error. In addition, most teenagers lack the ideals of coding, C++ and other key computer languages that make social networking susceptible. Some teenagers even feel threatened with the new technology and are reluctant to adapt it. The younger generation is not tech savvy as expected as they will miss out on some key pieces of essential information that comes with new technology. The author of the textbook agrees with all the principles and insists that there is a culture difference and not an age factor. The advent of the 21st century has no doubt made improvements in technology. However, crimes have also become more sophisticated as well. Gaining access to information has become drastically happy. Personal information can be easily fallen in the wrong hands which can be detrimental to individuals. The major types of cybercrime can be fraud and identity theft. Identity theft occurs to 9.91 million Americans whose losses accumulated to a hefty $52.6 billion. In order to prevent identity theft, it is critical that one does not provide personal information to unreliable sources. Furthermore, a user must be aware of phishing and other suspicious email that asks individuals of personal information. Lastly, there are many scams that are also available in popular sites such as craigslist and careerbuilder. Most of these scams do not give their name or a telephone number.